1st part of Pronouns

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11.1 Definition

A pronoun replaces a noun, a noun phrase or another pronoun with or without a determiner. You use pronouns like he, which, none, you, etc., to refer back to a noun or to take the place of that noun to make your sentences less cumbersome and less repetitive.

11.2 Types of Pronouns

11.2.1 Personal Pronouns

11.2.1.1 A personal pronoun refers to a specific person or thing and changes its form to indicate person, number, gender, and case. Eg.

person: 1st person (I/we), 2nd person (you) or 3rd person (he/she/it)
number: singular (I/you/he/she/it) or plural (we/you/they)
gender: male (he), female (she) or neuter (it)
case: subject (I/you/we/he/she/they) or object (me/you/us/him/her/them)

Here are the personal pronouns:

number

person

gender

personal pronouns

subject

object

singular

1st

male/female

2nd

male/female

you

3rd

male

him

female

she

her

neuter

plural

1st

male/female

2nd

male/female

you

3rd

male/female/neuter

they

them

11.2.1.2 When we are talking about a single thing, we almost always use it. However, there are a few exceptions. We may sometimes refer to an animal as he/him or she/her, especially if the animal is domesticated or a pet. Ships (and some other vessels or vehicles) as well as some countries are often treated as female and referred to as she/her. Here are some examples:

This is our dog Ruffie. He's a border collie mix.
The Titanic was a great ship but she sank on her first voyage.
My first car was a Mini and I treated her like my wife.
Thailand has now opened her border with Cambodia.

For a single person, sometimes we don't know whether to use he or she. There are several solutions to this:

If a teacher needs help, he or she should see the principal.
If a teacher needs help, he should see the principal.
If a teacher needs help, they should see the principal.

11.2.2 Possessive Pronouns

A possessive pronoun is a pronoun that indicates a possession relation. The possessive pronouns are mine, yours, hers, his, its, ours, and theirs.

We use possessive pronouns depending on:

number: singular (mine/yours/his/hers/its) or plural (ours/yours/theirs)
person: 1st person (mine/ours), 2nd person (yours) or 3rd person (his/hers/its)
gender: male (his), female (hers)

Below are the possessive pronouns.

number

person

gender (of "owner")

possessive pronouns

singular

1st

male/female

mine

2nd

male/female

yours

3rd

male

his

female

hers

plural

1st

male/female

ours

2nd

male/female

yours

3rd

male/female/neuter

theirs

Examples*:

Look at these pictures. Mine is the big one. (subject = My picture)
I like your flowers. Do you like mine? (object = my flowers)
I looked everywhere for your key. I found John's key but I couldn't find yours. (object = your key)
My flowers are dying. Yours are lovely. (subject = Your flowers)
All the essays were good but his was the best. (subject = his essay)
John found his passport but Mary couldn't find hers. (object = her passport)
John found his clothes but Mary couldn't find hers. (object = her clothes)
Here is your car. Ours is over there, where we left it. (subject = Our car)
Your photos are good. Ours are terrible. (subject = Our photos)
Each couple's books are colour-coded. Yours are red. (subject = Your books)
I don't like this family's garden but I like yours. (object = your garden)
These aren't John and Mary's children. Theirs have black hair. (subject = Their children)
John and Mary don't like your car. Do you like theirs? (object = their car)

Notice that each possessive pronoun can:

be subject or object
refer to a singular or plural antecedent

Notice that the interrogative pronoun whose can also be a possessive pronoun (an interrogative possessive pronoun). Eg.

There was $100 on the table and Tara wondered whose it was. (Mok: Since whose is both a possessive pronoun and a possessive adjective/determiner, one can actually make use of either of its two parts of speech here. As a possessive pronoun, it is used as the example above. When one responds to Tara, one can say, “The money was Mary’s,” or “The money was hers.” And as a possessive adjective, one can also respond to Tara by saying, “It was Mary’s money,” or “It was her money.”)
This car hasn't moved for two months. Whose is it? (Mok: Same as above.)

* Adapted from http://www.englishclub.com/grammar/pronouns-possessive.htm.

11.2.3 Demonstrative Pronouns

11.2.3.1 A demonstrative pronoun points to and identifies a thing or things.

The demonstrative pronouns are this, that, these, and those. Their uses are:

near in distance or time (this, these)
far in distance or time (that, those)

11.2.3.2 Note that the demonstrative pronouns are identical to demonstrative adjectives. Obviously, you use them differently. A demonstrative pronoun stands alone, while a demonstrative adjective qualifies a noun. (see 9.2.2.2) Eg.

That smells. (demonstrative pronoun)
That book is good. (demonstrative adjective + noun)

11.2.3.3 It is also important to note that "that" can also be used as a relative pronoun. Eg.

That sucks. (demonstrative pronoun)
The car that hit him was red. (relative pronoun)

11.2.3.4 Normally we use demonstrative pronouns for things only. But we can use them for people when the person is identified. Eg.

This is Paul speaking. Is that Janet?
That sounds like Phil.

11.2.3.5 More examples of demonstrative pronouns:

This sounds good.
Have you seen this?
These are lousy times.
Do you like these?
That is lovely.
Look at that!
Those were the days!
Can you see those?
This is lighter than that.
These are brighter than those.

11.2.4 Indefinite Pronouns

11.2.4.1 An indefinite pronoun is a pronoun referring to an identifiable but not specified person or thing. An indefinite pronoun conveys the idea of all, any, none, or some.

The most common indefinite pronouns are all, another, any, anybody, anyone, anything, each, everybody, everyone, everything, few, many, nobody, none, one, several, some, somebody, and someone.

11.2.4.2 Note that some indefinite pronouns also function as indefinite adjectives/determiners (see 9.2.1.3). Eg.

That drink was good. Can I have another? (indefinite pronoun)
I'd like another drink, please. (indefinite adjective)

11.2.4.3 Most indefinite pronouns are either singular or plural. However, some of them can be singular in one context and plural in another. Eg.#

All is forgiven. (the whole quantity of something as a unit)
All have arrived. (the whole quantity of some things or people as individuals)
Is any left? (no matter how much)
Are any coming? (no matter how many)
There is more over there. (a greater quantity of something)
More are coming. (a greater number of people or things)
Most is lost. (the majority of something)
Most have refused. (nearly all of the people)
They fixed the water so why is none coming out of the tap? (not any water)
I invited five friends but none have come.** (no person or persons)
Here is some. (an unspecified quantity of something)
Some have arrived. (an unspecified number of people or things)

11.2.4.4 Notice that a singular indefinite pronoun must take a singular verb, eg.

Each of the players has a doctor.

11.2.4.5 Note that any personal pronoun should agree (in number and gender)
with the indefinite pronoun. Eg.

I met two girls. One has given me her phone number.
Many have expressed their views.

11.2.4.6 More examples of indefinite pronouns:#

Can anyone answer this question?
The doctor needs to know if you have eaten anything in the last two hours.
Each has his own thoughts.
I don't mind. Either is good for me.
Enough is enough.
We can start the meeting because everybody has arrived.
They have no house or possessions. They lost everything in the earthquake.
Less is more.
Little is known about his early life.
Much has happened since we met.
I keep telling Jack and Jill but neither believes me.
I phoned many times but nobody answered.
Clearly somebody murdered him. It was not suicide.
If you don't know the answer it's best to say nothing.
Listen! I just heard something! What could it be?
All the students arrived but now one is missing.
One was tall and the other was short.
And you can see why. (an unidentified person, used informally) (Mok: ?)
John likes coffee but not tea. I think both are good.
Few have ever disobeyed him and lived.
Fewer are smoking these days.
Many have come already.
I'm sure that others have tried before us.
They all complained and several left the meeting.
They say that vegetables are good for you. (Mok: ?)

# Examples are from http://www.englishclub.com/grammar/pronouns-indefinite.htm.

11.2.5 Relative Pronouns 關係代名詞

11.2.5.1 A relative pronoun is used to link one phrase or clause to another phrase or clause in a sentence. It is called a “relative” pronoun because it “relates” to the word or phrase that it modifies. Eg.

The person who phoned me last night is my friend.

Here, who relates to and modifies “the person” by introducing the relative clause “(who) phoned me last night.”

The relative pronouns are who, whom, whose, which, that, where, when, and why. The compounds whoever, whomever, and whichever are also relative pronouns.

Who (subject), whoever (subject), whom (object) and whomever (object) are generally only for people. Whose is for possession. Which and whichever are for things. That can be used for people** and things and as subject and object. Where is for place; when for time; and why for explanation and reasons.

11.2.5.2 2 types of clauses: defining (restrictive) relative clause and
non-defining (non-restrictive) relative clause. In both types of clauses the relative pronoun can function as a subject, an object, or a possessive.

11.2.5.2.1 Relative pronouns in defining clauses

11.2.5.2.1.1 Defining relative clauses provide some essential information that explains the main clause. The information is crucial for understanding the sentence correctly and cannot be omitted. Defining clauses are opened by a relative pronoun and ARE NOT separated by a comma from the main clause.

The table below sums up the use of relative pronouns in defining clauses:

Function in
the sentence

Reference to

People

Things / concepts

Place

Time

Reason

Subject

who, whoever, that

which, that

Object

(that, who, whom, whomever)

(which, whichever, that)

where

when

why

Possessive

whose

whose, of which

11.2.5.2.1.2 Examples:

11.2.5.2.1.2.1 Relative pronoun used as a subject:

This is the house which / that had a great Christmas decoration.
It took me a while to get used to people who / that eat pop-corn during the movie.
The café which / that sells the best coffee in town has recently been closed.
(The relative pronoun that can only be used in defining clauses. It can also be substituted for who (referring to persons) or which (referring to things). That is often used in speech; who and which are more common in written English.)
Whoever wants it can have it.

11.2.5.2.1.2.2 Relative pronoun used as an object:

The library didn't have the book which / that I wanted.
I didn't like the book which / that John gave me.
(when referring to a person or thing, the relative pronoun may be omitted in the object position. So in these two examples, the relative pronoun which or that may be omitted. For more, see 11.2.5.3)
The woman to whom you have just spoken is my teacher.
She'll buy whichever is cheapest.
Give these tickets to John, or Cathy, or whomever.
Since when has she taught here?
Where does he come from? (Mok: Webster Dictionary says Where is not a pronoun! But the Yahoo Dictionary says it is. Need to find this out.)
The reason why they did it will never be known.

11.2.5.2.1.2.3 Relative pronoun used as the object of a
preposition. In formal English, the pronoun is included, but in informal English, it may not. Eg.

This is the house in which / where I lived when I first came to Canada. (Formal English)
This is the house I lived in when I first came to Canada. (Informal English)
The man to whom you have just spoken is my brother. (Formal English)
The man you have just spoken to is my brother. (Informal English)
The man who you have just spoken to is my brother. (Informal English)
The visitor for whom you were waiting has arrived. (Formal English)
The visitor you were waiting for has arrived. (Informal English)
The visitor who you were waiting for has arrived. (Informal English)

11.2.5.2.1.2.3.1 In which, at which and to which = where or when, but as a more precise way to introduce a relative clause after a noun that refers to a place or to a time. Eg.

In my laboratory there is a green cabinet in which old equipment is stored.
In my laboratory there is a green cabinet where old equipment is stored.
This is the restaurant at which I met my girlfriend for the first time.
This is the restaurant where I met my girlfriend for the first time.
It was a time in which the old were revered as sages.
It was a time when the old were revered as sages.
It was three o’clock at which the meeting was held.
It was three o’clock when the meeting was held.
It was Paris to which I moved when I was ten years old.
It was Paris which / that I moved to when I was ten years old. (informal)
It was Paris where I moved to when I was ten years old.

11.2.5.2.1.2.3.2 Use in which to avoid ending a sentence with a preposition in formal writing.

This is the computer in which the virus was discovered. (Formal English)
This is the computer that the virus was discovered in. (Informal English)
This is the desk in which the papers are stored. (Formal English)
This is the desk that the papers are stored in. (Informal English)

11.2.5.2.1.2.4 Relative pronoun used as a possessive:

The family whose house that was burnt in the fire was immediately given a suite in a hotel.
The book whose author is now being shown in the news has become a bestseller.
(Whose is the only possessive relative pronoun in English. It can be used with both people and things.)

11.2.5.2.2 Relative pronouns in non-defining clauses

11.2.5.2.2.1 Non-defining relative clauses (also known as non-restrictive, or parenthetical, clauses) provide some additional information which is not essential and may be omitted without affecting the contents of the sentence. All relative pronouns except “that” can be used in non-defining clauses; however, the pronouns may not be omitted. Non-defining clauses are separated by commas.

The table below sums up the use of relative pronouns in non-defining clauses:

Function in
the sentence

Reference to

People

Things / concepts

Place

Time

Reason

Subject

who

which

Object

who, whom

which

where

when

why

Possessive

whose

whose, of which

11.2.5.2.2.2 Examples:
11.2.5.2.2.2.1 Relative pronoun used as a subject:

The writer, who lives in this luxurious mansion, has just published his second novel.

11.2.5.2.2.2.2 Relative pronoun used as an object:

The house at the end of the street, which my grandfather built, needs renovating.

11.2.5.2.2.2.3 Relative pronoun used as a

possessive:

William Kellogg, whose name has become a famous breakfast foods brand-name, had some weird ideas about raising children.

11.2.5.3 Omissions of the relative pronoun
11.2.5.3.1 Omission of the relative pronoun between two nouns, two pronouns, a noun and a pronoun.
The relative pronoun between two nouns, two pronouns, a noun and a pronoun can be omitted. Eg.

It is tomorrow that we leave for Taiwan. (with relative pronoun)
It is tomorrow we leave for Taiwan. (without relative pronoun)
It was in Hong Kong that I was born. (with relative pronoun)
It was in Hong Kong I was born. (without relative pronoun)
The library didn't have the book which / that I wanted. (with relative pronoun)
The library didn't have the book I wanted. (without relative pronoun)
I didn't like the book which / that John gave me. (with relative pronoun)
I didn't like the book John gave me. (without relative pronoun)
The reason why they did it will never be known. (with relative pronoun)
The reason they did it will never be known. (without relative pronoun)

11.2.5.3.2 When referring to a person or a thing, the relative pronoun may be omitted in the object position. Eg. (see also 11.2.5.2.1.2.2)

The library didn't have the book which / that I wanted. (with relative pronoun)
The library didn't have the book I wanted. (without relative pronoun)
I didn't like the book which / that John gave me. (with relative pronoun)
I didn't like the book John gave me. (without relative pronoun)

11.2.5.3.3 Omission of the relative pronoun and the full verb, and their substitution by a participle (present or past participle) or an adjective in a relative clause.
The relative pronoun (that, who, etc.) and the full verb that follows it in a relative clause can be omitted. Their modifying function is being replaced by either a present participle, a past participle or an adjective. Eg.

A girl, who was scantily dressed, walked in.
A girl, scantily dressed, walked in. (who was omitted)
I have tried every remedy that was available.
I have tried every remedy available. (that was omitted)

11.2.5.4 Different uses of the relative pronoun with and without a comma in front of it.

問：He had three children, who were all well educated（他有三個孩子，都有良好教育）這一句，who之前假如不用逗點，句子意思有沒有不同？

答：類似問題我談過多次。簡而言之，who、which、whom等帶出的關係子句（relative clause）之前，用逗點，是不界定所述人、物的身分或性質；不用逗點，則是加以界定。例如Little White is an elephant, which has a long snout（小白是隻象，有長長的鼻子）、Little White is an elephant which enjoys human company（小白是隻愛和人類一起的象）。凡象都有長鼻，所以，which has a long snout這子句，沒有界定Little White是什麼象；象不一定愛和人類一起，所以，which enjoys human company是界定Little White是哪一類的象。

同樣道理，讀者說的那一句，是說他有三個兒子，所以不用界定是哪三個；假如說He had three children who were well educated，則表示他有不止三個孩子，所以要界定「那三個受過良好教育的」。

Whose 等於 and＋ his/ her/ their/ its

古德明 2012.6.2

問： People whose job it is to save lives usually work with a sense of urgency（救人為業者，工作常懷緊急心情）這一句，那 it字似是多餘的，可以刪去嗎？

答：那 it字有加強語氣作用，可以但不必刪去。這正如 It was his lot to lead his country against the Japs和 His lot was to lead his country against the Japs這兩句，都是說「他的命運，是率領國家對抗日寇」，但第一句用 it取代 his lot作主詞（ subject），語氣較強。

Whose等於 and＋ his/ her/ their/ its，這一點不必多說。文法上，讀者示下那一句，當然可改用 and their而不用 whose，即 People usually work with a sense of urgency, and it is their job to save lives。原句假如略去 it字，則可改寫作 People usually work with a sense of urgency, and their job is to save lives。這兩個寫法，除了用 and their代替 whose，其他用字和原句無別。謹再舉一例，以供參考： Chiang Kai-shek, whose lot(it) was to lead his country against the Japs, did not fail to see the communists as the greatest threat to China（蔣介石注定要率領國家對抗日寇，而他也預見共產黨是中國最大的隱患）。

問： Please note that和 Please be noted that這兩個說法，分別在於 Please be noted that較為客氣，對嗎？

答：英文沒有 Please be noted that這說法。 Please note that即「請注意」， It should be noted that即「值得注意的是」，切勿混合為 Please be noted that。

問： The pet shop is the best hotel for pets which you can find in London（這家寵物店，是倫敦最好的寵物旅館）一語， which怎麼不是指 pets而是指 hotel？ Which之類關係代名詞（ relative pronoun），不是應緊貼所述名詞的嗎？

答：關係代名詞一般的確緊貼其所代表的名詞，但有時礙於句子結構，只要不會引起誤會，則相隔若干字也無妨。當然，假如改變原句的意思，則 which可以指 pets: The pet shop is the best hotel for pets which are looking for new masters（這家寵物店，對要找新主人的寵物來說，是最佳的旅館）。

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問：讀書見到以下一句：Each unit has a vocabulary exercise focused on the unit topic（每一課都有以課題為中心的詞彙練習）。句中的focused是不是應改為focusing？

答：Focus（集中、專注）可作及物（transitive）或不及物（intransitive）動詞，即其後有沒有受詞（object）都可以。例如：Our attention focused on the speaker/ We focused our attention on the speaker（我們專心聽演講）。讀者說的那一句，同樣可以有兩個方式改寫：Each unit has a vocabulary exercise which focuses on the unit topic/ which is focused on the unit topic。關係子句（relative clause）往往可省略為分詞子句（participle clause），所以這一句可省略如下：Each unit has a vocabulary exercise focusing on/ focused on the unit topic。

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問：I came across the body of a Chinese soldier, lying face up on a footpath（我看見一個中國士兵的屍體仰卧小徑上）這一句，那lying face up是什麼句子結構？

答：Lying是現在分詞（present participle），lying face up是所謂分詞子句（participle clause）。文法上，關係子句（relative clause）往往可用分詞子句取代，例如：Anyone wanting（= who wants to）watch the game must pay$200（要看這場比賽的人，須付二百元）。讀者說的那一句，lying face up等於which laid (Mok: should be “was lain”?) face up。 (Mok: lie, lay, lain, lying; lay, laid, laid, laying)

Another example:

The family whose house that was burnt in the fire was immediately given a suite in a hotel.

The family whose house burnt in the fire was immediately given a suite in a hotel.

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敝公司培訓部電郵說：Please nominate a representative, preferably those are responsible for statistical work, to attend the said training course（請提名一人為代表，參與這個訓練課程，尤以負責統計者為佳）。這一句的those之後，是不是應加who字？

答：這一句宜改寫如下：Please nominate a representative, preferably one who is responsible for statistical work, to attend the training course。原句既說a representative，就不應用複數形式的those作代名詞，應改用one；而one文法上和a representative相同，都是nominate的受詞（object），所以不能作其後子句（clause）的主詞（subject），所以該子句須加主詞who。又原句末尾那個said字，指「上述的」，是舊式公函用語，於所言無補，完全不必要。

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